Joanna Blake York University, Toronto, Canada Cambridge University Press 2000 BOOK AND AUTHOR NOTES This remarkable book provides a detailed comparison of nonhuman primates and human infants with regard to key abilities that provide the foundation for language. It makes the case for phylogenetic continuity across species and ontogenetic continuity from infancy to childhood. Examined here are behaviors fundamental to language acquisition, such as vocalizations, mapping of meaning onto sound, use of gestures to communicate and to symbolize, tool use, object concept, and memory. The author provides evidence linking these abilities with language acquisition. This volume goes a step further to analyze the similarities and differences across species in these precursors and how these may have influenced the evolution of language. Fascinating hypotheses about the origins of language are described. Joanna Blake is Associate Professor of Psychology at York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. CONTENTS Preface xi 1. Prelinguistic Vocalizations 1 Phylogenetic Origins of Human Infant Vocalizations 2 Differences between the Nonhuman Primate and Human Vocal Tracts 6 Ontogeny of Vocalizations in Human Infants over the First Year 13 Development of Vocalization in Human Infants during the Transition to Language 20 Phonetic Preferences 20 Features of Babbling 30 Prelinguistic Vocalizations and First Words 32 Prelinguistic Vocalizations and Later Language 34 Environmental Influences on Babbling 35 Conclusions 40 2. Sound-Meaning Correspondences 42 The Functional Meaning of Nonhuman Primate Calls 43 Spontaneous Calls of the Great Apes 43 Playback Experiments 48 Phonetically Consistent Forms in Prelinguistic Infants 51 Review of Observational Studies 52 Prosodic Aspects of Sound-Meaning Correspondences 56 Our Research on Sound-Meaning Correspondences 57 Conclusions 76 3. Communicative Gestures 78 What Is a Gesture? 78 Phylogenetic Origins of Communicative Gestures 82 Ontogeny of Gestures in Human Infants before 9 Months 92 Gestural Development from 9 Months: Order of Onset 95 Onset of Coordination of Gesture with Vocalization and Gaze 97 Change in the Gestural Repertoire from 9 to 15 Months and in Coordination with Vocalization and Gaze 102 Interrelationships among Gestures 105 Environmental Influences on the Gestural Repertoire 106 Relation of Gestures to Early Vocabulary and Later Language Acquisition 107 Conclusions 109 4. Symbolic Gestures and Symbolic Play 111 Theoretical Background 112 Symbolic Gestures in Nonhuman Primates 114 Symbolic Gestures in Human Infants 120 Our Observations of Symbolic Gestures 123 Symbolic Play 126 Our Research on Symbolic Play 134 Conclusions 139 5. Tool Use and Object Concept 140 Tool Use in Wild Apes 144 Tool Use in Captive and Ex-captive Apes and Monkeys 148 Circular Reactions 153 Conclusions 154 Object Concept in Apes and Monkeys 155 Conclusions 158 Early Findings in Favor of a Relationship between Tool Use and Communication in Human Infants 158 Methodological Problems in Means-Ends and Object Permanence Tasks 160 Results Relating Object Permanence Tasks to More Specific Aspects of Language Acquisition 162 The Specificity Hypothesis 163 Our Research Relating Piagetian Tasks to Communication 165 Object Constructions 166 Conclusions 169 6. Representation in Human Infants 171 Evidence from Preferential-Looking Paradigms 171 Evidence from Delayed-Imitation Paradigms 176 Evidence from Reaching Paradigms 180 Theories about the Development of Representation 180 Conclusions 183 7. Memory in Nonhuman Primates and Young Children 186 Memory in Monkeys and Apes 186 Spatial Memory 187 Sequential Memory 190 Delayed Imitation 193 Memory and Language Acquisition in Children 196 Our Research on Memory and Language 202 Conclusions 212 8. Origins of Language 213 Brain-Body Ratio and Brain Structure 213 Gestures 215 Mimetic to Mythic Culture 218 Information Donation 219 Symbolic Reference 221 The "Hopeful Monster" Theory 223 Conclusions 226 9. Recapitulation 228 References 233 Index 261 SELECTION FROM PREFACE The purpose of this book is to address the issue of continuity, both phylogenetic continuity across species and ontogenetic continuity across infancy to childhood. The focus is on behaviors that have been proposed as essential precursors of language: nonmeaningful sound production; early mapping of meaning onto sound; communicative hand and body movements (communicative gestures); movements that represent actions and objects (symbolic gestures); pretend play involving toy animation and imaginary use of objects; use of an object to achieve a goal (tool use); understanding of how objects behave in space, whether visible or not (object permanence); and memory for spatial layouts, objects in arrays, actions and events (delayed imitation), and lists of items (auditory memory). All of these precursors have been investigated in human infants with regard to their impact on early language, as well as others that will not be treated. Emotional factors that may be crucial for language, namely early processing of facial expressions and attachment, will not be included. These precursors have been addressed in recent books by Bloom (1993) and Locke (1993). I will also focus on language production with less emphasis on language comprehension, except for standardized tests of receptive language. This is because the vast majority of research on the precursors that I have selected is focused on their relation to language production. Speech perception will also not be covered; it has been reviewed recently by Jusczyk( 1997). This book extensively reviews research findings, both from our own studies and from those of other investigators, regarding the development across infancy of these abilities purported to underlie language. In the case of memory, the review includes results from children as well, because much of the research relating memory to language has been conducted with this group. The goal is to establish the degree to which the findings support a relation between the proposed precursor and language abilities. The review spans a relatively long time period, since this issue was first addressed by Bates ( 1979). More recent research has redefined the relation to language of such abilities as tool use, object concept, symbolic gestures, and symbolic play, however, and some of this research needs to be evaluated. The impact of some developments on language has only recently been addressed sufficiently, namely prelinguistic vocalizations and memory. In addition, each chapter begins with a review of findings with regard to the presence of the precursor in nonhuman primates. The focus, where possible, is on great apes in the wild, with some treatment of apes in captivity or in rehabilitation centers when important findings pertaining to the topic exist, for example, for tool use and delayed imitation. When research with apes is scarce, findings on monkeys are more extensively reviewed, for example, for sound-meaning correspondences and memory for lists. Although a few captive apes have been experimental subjects in the domains addressed by the book, recent experimental research has been heavily focused on monkeys. For this reason, the nonhuman primate studies cited cover a wide range of years in order to include some interesting early experiments with apes, as well as important older studies of ape vocalization in the wild. The purpose of the review of nonhuman primate abilities is to clearly juxtapose them against the abilities of human infants to determine just where the similarities and dissimilarities lie. In some cases, there are few dissimilarities, whereas in others there are few similarities. Some believe that such comparisons are not useful, either because the species being compared are of different ages (often adult ape and human infant) or because such a comparison is anthropomorphic. For those of us who are interested in the roots of language, however, I think such a comparison is one that we continually make and that such a juxtaposition of findings can contribute to a clarification of the continuity issue. Each chapter, then, progresses from observations on nonhuman primates with respect to the precursor, to its development in human infants, and finally to its relation to language. Chapter 6 is a separate discussion of the issue of representation in infants, and Chapter 7 deals with memory in nonhuman primates and the relation of memory to language in children. Chapter 8 is an attempt to evaluate various hypotheses about the origin of language in the light of the findings reviewed. WHERE TO ORDER Cambridge University Press 40 West 20th Street New York, NY 10011-4211, USA Phone: 1-800-872-7423 Fax: 914-937-4712 Web site: http://www.cambridge.org Price: $90.00(Hardbound) ISBN: 0-521-79109-X
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