Vincent Nijman
Tropendos International 2001
AIM OF THE STUDY:
There is a lack of base line knowledge concerning the ecology of most, if
not all, endemic primates in Indonesia. The precise geographical
distribution of many species has not been documented. The types of habitats
preferred and the densities at which individual species occur in different
land use types remains largely unknown. The likely impacts of current
factors such as hunting, capturing, habitat alteration and habitat
fragmentation are unknown for many of the primates concerned. The islands
of Java and Borneo are excellent locations to study the effects of human
interference on the survival and conservation of primates. On both islands
similar endemic primates are found but the pressures facing these species
are quite different. Java represents an area where little forest remains,
where the pressure on the remaining populations of primates dates back
several centuries, and where many people are no longer dependent on the
forest, whereas Borneo represents an area in transition. Although still
largely covered in forest, rapid changes in land-use and changing human
attitudes will greatly alter the pressures that wildlife populations are
facing. The history of deforestation on Java will most likely repeat itself
on the other Sundaic islands, e.g., Sumatra and Borneo and possibly other
parts of Southeast Asia. These areas have a much higher number of primate
species. The findings and conclusions of the present study will therefore
aim at presenting a framework for the conservation of South-east Asian
primates.
In order to gain greater understanding in the conservation status of the
endemic primates of Java and Borneo, this study set out to collect relevant
ecological data and to document the pressures facing the different species.
Specific aims of the research are:
(i) To assess the geographical distribution of individual species on
Java and Borneo (Chapters 6, 7, 9 and 11).
(ii) To develop, test and evaluate census methods by which primate
populations can be assessed and monitored (Chapters 2, 3 and 4).
(iii) To determine the type and magnitude of the threats facing the
individual species and habitats on the islands (Chapters 8, 9, 10
and 11).
(iv) Using data collected under (i), (ii) and (iii), to re-assess the
conservation status of the endemic primates of Java and Borneo using
the IUCN threat criteria (Chapter 12), and subsequently
(v) To identify key areas for conservation based on densities of particular
primate species, the co-existence of a disproportional large subset of
primate species and management feasibility (Chapters 8 and 11 ).
(vi) To discuss the results of the present study into greater perspective
and formulate further research priorities (Chapter 13).
CONTENTS:
List of Tables and Figures
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1. Forest and primates, a general introduction
to the conservation of endemic primates in the Sundaic region 1
SECTION I. Background and Survey Methodology
Chapter 2. Density and biomass estimates of
gibbons (Hylobates muelleri) in Bornean rainforest: a comparison of techniques 13
with Steph B. J. Menken
Chapter 3. Effects of behavioural changes due to habitat
disturbance on density estimation of rain forest
vertebrates, as illustrated by gibbons (Primates: Hylobatidae) 33
pp. 217-225 in: P.J.M. Hillegers and H.H. Iongh (eds.) (2001).
The balance between biodiversity conservation and sustainable use
of tropical rain forests. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen,
the Netherlands.
Chapter 4. Calling behaviour of wild Javan
gibbons Hylobates moloch in Java, Indonesia 43
with Thomas Geissmann
Chapter 5. Geographical variation in pelage
characteristics in grizzled leaf monkey Presbytis comata
(Desmarest 1822) (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) 61
Zeitschriftfur Saugetierkunde 62: 257-264, 1997
SECTION II: Studies on Endemic Primates of Java
Chapter 6. Occurrence and distribution of grizzled leaf monkey Presbytis comata
(Desmarest 1822) (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) on Java, Indonesia 71
Contributions to Zoology 66:247-256, 1997
Chapter 7. Geographical distribution of ebony leaf monkey Trachypithecus auratus
(Geoffroy Saint Hilaire 1812) (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) 83
Contributions to Zoology 69: 157-177, 2000
Chapter 8. A faunal survey of the Dieng mountains,
Central Java, Indonesia: status and distribution of endemic primate taxa 115
with S. (Bas) van Balen, Oryx 32: 145-156, 1998
SECTION III: Studies on Endemic Primates of Borneo
Chapter 9. Distribution and conservation of the proboscis
monkey Nasalis larvatus in Kalimantan, Indonesia 129
with Erik Meijoard, Biological Conservation 92: 15-24, 2000
Chapter 10. The local extinction of the
proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus in Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve, Indonesia 145
with Erik Meijaard, Oryx 34: 66-70, 2000
Chapter 11 Patterns of primate diversity
on Borneo and selection of priority areas for conservation 153
with Erik Meijoard
SECTION IV: Synthesis
Chapter 12. Re-assessment of IUCN conservation status
of the endemic primates of Java and Borneo 169
Chapter 13. General discussion 183
Summary: Forest (and) primates:
conservation and ecology of endemic primates on Java and Borneo 197
References 205
Curriculum vitae 231
List of publications 233
INTRODUCTION:
The Sundaic region, also known as Sundaland, Malesia, or the Indo-Malayan
region, and defined as Thai-Malay peninsula south of the isthmus of Kra,
Sumatra, Borneo, Java and Bali, has been identified as one of the hottest
biodiversity hotspots on earth (Meyers et al., 2000). The area ranks second
in number of endemic plants, fifth in number of endemic vertebrates
(excluding fishes), tenth for endemic plants / area ratio and endemic
vertebrate / area ratio, and ranks seventh in having the least amount of
primary vegetation remaining as percentage of the original extent. With the
Philippines and Madagascar, the Sundaic region is the only area to appear
in the top ten of all the above listed factors (Meyers et al., 2000).
During interpluvial periods the region was originally covered by and large
in rain forest of different types, depending on, among other things, altitude
and soil type (Park, 1994). Interpluvial periods correspond with the
'glacial' periods in temperate regions and during such times so much of the
northern and southern latitudes was covered in ice that sea levels were
reduced by as much as 100 m. Along the south eastern edge of the Sunda Shelf,
i.e. eastern Java and parts of Bali, drier forest types could be found
including deciduous forest. Especially over the last decades, but much
earlier in the lowlands of Java, due to rapid deforestation, large areas,
are now converted into agricultural land, plantations, and, increasingly
'wastelands', i.e. virtually unoccupied land covered in e.g., alang-alang
Imperata grassland and other depauperate vegetation types (e.g., Myers, 1989).
The once large continuous areas of forest of the Sundaic region are home to
a large variety of non-human primate species (hereafter 'primates").
Depending on the taxonomy followed 26-28 species can be found in the region.
This includes four of the eleven families commonly recognised (Corbel; Hill,
1992; Mittermeier & Konstant, 1996/1997): Loridae (one species),
Tarsidae (one species), Cercopithecidae (17-18 species, including the bear
macaque Macaca arctoides which occurs marginal in northern part of the
Thai-Malay peninsula), Hylobatidae (six species), Hominidae (one or two
species depending on whether the two orangutan taxa from Sumatra and Borneo
are given the species rank, see below). From a broad geographic perspective
the region is important as it harbours a disproportionately large number of
primate species and primate endemics (Mittermeier & Konstant, 1996/1997).
With the exception of a few, most notably the long-tailed macaque M.
fascicularis, most species are confined to natural forest. Some species
are able to survive in certain man-made habitats, most notably certain
forest plantations, but most of them will not survive for any length of time
in these habitats.
In this thesis I will present data on the ecology and conservation of the
endemic primates of Java and Borneo. Combined, these two islands, and their
smaller neighbouring islands, comprise more than half of the land surface
of the Sundaic region. In this first chapter I will briefly introduce the
islands of Java and Borneo (geology, climate, vegetation, human population
etc.), the endemic primate species occurring on them and their conservation
status. The main causes of the decline of the populations of the endemic
primates on Java and Borneo are presented, after which a brief overview of
primate conservation studies that have been conducted on the islands will
be given. The chapter ends with a concise summary of the history of the
present study, its aims, and an outline of the thesis.
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