Edited by Linda Brent Special Topics in Primatology Volume 2 Janette Wallis, Series Editor A Publication of the American Society of Primatologists Copyright 2001 FOREWORD If ever there was a good time for reflection on chimpanzee housing and care, it is now. In the U.S. as well as in Europe and Japan, scientists are busy lobbying for funds and developing plans to move hundreds, perhaps thousands of apes into so-called ' sanctuaries." The intention is to let them live out their lives with adequate space and the social companionship needed for psychological well-being. This sanctuary movement hopes to provide a welcome change in environment for many chimpanzees currently in research settings. At the same time, not all laboratory chimpanzees will be moved, and improvement of their condition should remain a high priority for all of us who care about these animals. This volume, which reviews the pros and cons of various housing conditions and management practices, and compares data from both research institutes and the zoo community, is bound to inspire and inform plans for future care. The situation of captive chimpanzees has changed dramatically over the years. The species used to be considered too emotionally volatile and aggressive to be kept in large groups. Chimpanzees were kept singly or in small groups in small cages. The perceived advantage of such housing was that it provided increased human control over behavior and nutrition, reduced the chances of social tensions and fighting, and improved hygiene. Inasmuch as this way of keeping chimpanzees seemed ideal from a veterinary standpoint, it ruled for a long time, and advocates still exist. What these conditions do not seem to do, however, is provide optimal mental stimulation for one of the most intelligent animals on earth. In the 1970s, some zoos bravely moved away from this model, partially inspired by the visionary pleas of Kortlandt [1960] and Reynolds and Reynolds [1965], who advocated naturalistic settings for captive chimpanzees. The first zoo to follow this advice was the Arnhem Zoo, in the Netherlands, which successfully established an island-living chimpanzee colony that since has inspired zoos worldwide. At about the same time, some primate centers moved toward more naturalistic chimpanzee environments, without of course the constraint that the enclosures needed to look attractive to the public. For example, the Yerkes Primate Center set up an island group of chimpanzees and later established a group in an outdoor corral. As a result of these early initiatives, several research institutions now have decades of valuable experience with the housing of sizable chimpanzee groups, sometimes including twenty individuals or more, in spacious open-air enclosures. All the signs are that this environment works excellently. For example, a recent study of physiological stress indicators, such as fecal cortisol, suggests reduced stress if chimpanzees are kept in outdoor enclosures away from the noisy, cramped quarters of the typical laboratory [de Waal et al., 2000]. It is generally assumed by primatologists that the remarkable mental abilities of chimpanzees and other primates, including humans, evolved at least partly to meet the requirements of a complex group life. So, primate intelligence is to a large extent social intelligence. Efforts to provide an interesting and variable life to captive primates should focus, therefore, on the social environment. The physical housing conditions will then be dictated by the requirements of group life. Well-known drawbacks of social housing, such as reduced access to the chimpanzees, should be weighed against this significant advantage: social companions are the one "enrichment device" to which habituation never occurs. Social life challenges the animals, and induces moments of excitement and stress as well as subsequent relaxation. Nothing matches group life when it comes to breaking the cycle of boredom in a manner consistent with natural needs and inclinations. We all realize that humans are better off with the ups and the downs of a social life than without a social life at all. Why would it be any different for nonhuman primates? But here I am still fighting a winning battle. Ten to twenty years ago, the very idea of social housing still needed defense, whereas now the debate is rather about what kind of social housing would be best. It is important to discuss both the optimal and practical solutions - we have no trouble dreaming up the ideal enclosure for chimpanzees. For me this would be something like a lush grassy island of several hectares with lots of climbing and hiding opportunities, populated with a multi-male group of up to thirty chimpanzees. There will be many situations, however, in which this solution is impracticable or impossible. Such an enclosure is often hard to realize, even for the average zoo, let alone for the average research institution that owns chimpanzees. What we need, therefore, is a set of guidelines to answer the question "if you have only so much space, so much money, or you need daily access to the apes, what would be the optimal housing?" The present volume seems to consider this entire range of possibilities, from the ideal enclosure to the best compromise between research needs and chimpanzee welfare We have an obligation, whatever the circumstances, to always provide these animals. with the most stimulating, most pleasant environment we can. Frans B. M. de Waal Living Links, Yerkes Primate Center Emory University, Atlanta, GA FROM THE BACK COVER: THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CHIMPANZEES is a valuable reference text for individuals at zoos, laboratories, and sanctuaries that want to provide their chimpanzees with the best possible care and environment. The volume covers topics from health care and contraceptives to regulations, training, and forming and managing social groups. Each chapter provides a thorough review of the scientific literature, illustrated and summarized for ease of reading. Recommendations and methods to meet particular management goals are included, based on empirical data on captive chimpanzees as well as the natural behavior and social organization of species. Linda Brent, Ph.D. Editor Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research Congratulations to Linda Brent on putting together a set of practical reviews of issues essential to the care of chimpanzees. She and the contributors clearly recognize that good intentions are not enough. We owe our nearest kin the best of science-based care and consideration. Joseph M. Erwin, Ph.D. ASP Founder and Past President, Great Ape Aging Project, BIOQUAL, Inc., and the Foundation for Comparative and Conservation Biology There are 371 "urban chimpanzeees" in Japan in the year 2000. Two-thirds of them are kept in 50 zoos. How can we coexist with our evolutionary neighbors? This book covers many important issues and topics about "urban chimpanzees". I recommend this book for not only the people working with chimpanzees but also the ones who love them. Tetsuro Matsuzawa Professor of Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan CONTENTS Contributors ix Foreword Frans B.M. de Waal xi Preface Linda Brent xv A Brief History of Captive Chimpanzees in the United States Linda Brent 1 What Does a Chimpanzee Need? Using Behavior to Guide the Care and Management of Captive Populations Ji11 D.E. Pruetz and William C. McGrew 17 Chimpanzee Facility Design Jon Charles Coe, Randy Fulk, and Linda Brent 39 Chimpanzee Medicine and Health Care Program D. Rick Lee and Faisal A. Guhad 83 Reproductive Management of Captive Chimpanzees: Contraceptive Decisions Tammie L. Bettinger and Karen E. DeMatteo 119 Behavior and Environmental Enrichment of Individually Housed Chimpanzees Linda Brent 147 Captive Chimpanzee Social Group Formation Jo Fritz and Susan Howell 173 Social Management of Captive Chimpanzees Mollie A. Bloomsmith and Kate C. Baker 205 Training for Cooperative Behaviors and Enrichment Gail Laule and Margaret Whittaker 243 How Much Will It Cost to Keep Our Chimpanzees? Bennett Dyke 267 Laws, Policies, and Guidelines on the Care and Use of Captive Chimpanzees in the United States Sarah Williams-Blangero and John L. VandeBerg 277 Author Index 289 Subject Index 299 WHERE TO ORDER: Steve Shapiro, Ph.D., ASP Treasurer American Society of Primatologists UTMD Anderson Science Park, Rt 2, Box 151-B1 Bashtrop, TX 78602, USA E-mail: an83000@mdacc.mda.uth.tmc.edu Phone: 512-321-3991 FAX: 512-332-5208 PRICE: $25.00 + Shipping ( U.S. $2.50, non-U.S. $5.00) ISBN: 0-9658301-1-X(paperback) Payment must be in US funds. Sorry, no credit card orders. Make checks payable to American Society of Primatologists.
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