Co-Edited by Birute M. F. Galdikas President Orangutan Foundation International Los Angeles, California Nancy Erickson Briggs California State University at Long Beach Long Beach, California Lori K. Sheeran Califorrnia State University at Fullerton Fullerton, California Gary L. Shapiro Vice-President Orangutan Foundation International Los Angeles, California and Jane Goodall President The Jane Goodall Institute Kluwer 2001 CONTENTS Dedication ix Acknowledgements xi Preface xii Volume Overview xv Section One-Issues in Ape and Human Evolution Introduction to Section One 1 1. African Apes as Time Machines 5 R. Wrangham and D. Pilbeam 2. Primate Divergence Times 19 A. Janke and U. Arnason 3. The Cerebellum: An Asset to Hominoid Cognition 35 C.E. MacLeod, K. Zilles, A. Schleicher, and K.R. Gibson Section Two-Bonobos, the "Forgotten Ape"? Introduction to Section Two 55 4. The status of the Bonobo (Pan Paniscus) in the Democratic Republic of Congo 57 J. Dupain and L. Van Elsacker 5. The Status of Bonobos in their Southernmost Geographic Range 75 J.A. Myers Thompson 6. Current Situation of the Bonobos in the Luo Reserve, Equateur, Democratic Republic of Congo 83 C. Hashimoto and T. Furuichi Section Three-Chimpanzees, The Best-known Ape Introduction to Section Three 91 7. Pan in Pandemonium 95 S.T. Boysen and T. Butynski 8. Predation of Mammals by the Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania 107 K. Hosaka, T. Nishida, M. Hamai, A. Matsumoto-Oda, and S. Uehara 9. Representational Capacities in the Chimpanzees: Numerical and Spatial Reasoning 131 S.T. Boysen and V.A. Kuhlmeier Section Four-Gorillas, The Greatest of the Apes Introduction to Section Four 149 10. The Status of Gorillas Worldwide 151 F.G.P. Patterson and M.L. Matevia 11. Twenty-seven Years of Project Koko and Michael 165 F.G.P. Patterson and W. Gordon 12. Who's in Charge? Observations of Social Behavior in a Captive Group of Western Lowland Gorillas 177 T.A. Stein Section Five-Physiological Bases for Behavior and Aging: Great Apes and Humans Introduction to Section Five 191 13. The Great Ape Aging Project: A Resource for the Comparative Study of Behavior, Cognition, Health, and Neurobiology 195 J.M. Erwin, M. Bloomsmith, S.T. Boysen, P.R. Hof, R. Holloway, L. Lowenstine, R. McManamon, D.P. Perl, W. Young, and A. Zihlman 14. An International Database for the Study of Diabetes, Obesity, and Aging in Great Apes and Other Nonhuman Primates 201 R. Martens, R. Couch, B. Hansen, C. Howard, J. Kemnitz, D.P. Perl, and J.M. Erwin 15. Studies of Age-Related Neuronal Pathology in Great Apes 207 D.P. Perl, P.R. Hof, E.A. Nimchinsky, and J.M. Erwin 16. Metabolites of Ovarian Hormones and Behavioral Correlates in Captive Female Bonobos (Pan Paniscus) 217 M.H. Jurke, L.R. Hagey, N.M. Czekala, and N.C. Harvey 17. Sexual Motivation of Male Chimpanzees during the Female Cycle, Including Preliminary Data on Age Effects 231 R.D. Nadler Section Six-The Bushmeat Crisis: African Apes at Risk Introduction to Section Six 237 18. Bushmeat, Primate Kinship, and the Global Conservation Movement 241 A.L. Rose 19. Status of the Proposed Lomako Forest Bonobo Reserve: A Case Study of the Bushmeat Trade 259 J. Dupain and L. Van Elsacker 20. What Happened to Gorilla Gorilla Uellensis? A Preliminary Investigation 275 K. Ammann and N. Briggs 21. Apes, Persons, and Bioethics 283 P. Singer and P. Cavalieri Index 293 OVERVIEW This conference is a direct outgrowth of the first Great Apes Conference held in 1974 in Austria, where great ape experts gathered for more than one week to discuss ape issues. Conservation was absent from the agenda, and not a single paper on conservation appeared in the volume that resulted from the conference. In December 1991, for the first time scholars gathered in an ape range country, Indonesia, to discuss great apes. This time, both conservation and research were emphasized, but most discussions were about orangutans and orangutan conservation issues. African great apes were represented by the world's leading chimpanzee experts (Drs. Nishida, Goodall, Teleki, Wrangham, McGrew, and others). Only one bonobo researcher was present, and these apes, still known as "pygmy chimpanzees" to many in the audience, were scarcely mentioned. When the third ape conference was initially planned in 1996, Indonesia was seen as the center of emerging Southeast Asian "tigers," was politically stable, and environmental issues, while severe, did not seem insurmountable. The region was suffused with the glow of economic potential, and there was talk of Indonesia becoming a regional superpower. Various economic and political events in 1997, however, exposed the underlying weakness and distortion in this picture. As toxic haze from massive forest fires in Borneo and Sumatra rose over Southeast Asia, as transportation and communication networks collapsed due to the smoke, as schools closed, and as thousands of people suffered from respiratory disorders, it became clear that Indonesia, and Southeast Asia as a whole, still had a long way to go. The abrupt economic collapse of the Southeast Asian "tigers" followed by massive devaluations of the currencies of the region occurred just as the fires were at their worst. The rupiah, long stable, plummeted from 2,500 rupiahs to the dollar to 17,000. Although the currency later regained some of its original value, the savings of millions of Indonesians were decimated and their economic futures were destroyed. At one point, every company listed on the Jakarta stock exchange was technically bankrupt. Peregrine, the large maverick brokerage firm in Hong Kong, abruptly went bankrupt when the hundreds of millions of dollars that it had invested in President Suharto's daughter's taxicab firm vanished, seemingly in the smoke shrouding the region. In the beginning of 1998, protests swelled throughout Indonesia, reaching a crescendo of demonstrations in Jakarta during the month of May. President Suharto abruptly stepped down after several days of violent rioting in Jakarta that left 150 people dead and more than 1,000 Chinese-Indonesian women and girls raped and mutilated. The Orangutan Foundation International decided, in light of these problems, to postpone the great apes conference until 1998. Both U.S. and British governments had issued travel advisories for their citizens visiting Indonesia, and the international media descended on the capital so that television screens around the world were filled with images of burning buildings and rioters in Jakarta. Many conference invitees, especially those with no experience in Southeast Asia, decided not to attend the conference, citing reasons of personal safety and unease even though the conference was going to be held in Malaysian, not Indonesian, Borneo. Fresh perspectives were presented at the conference despite the loss of some invitees. An example of this was the conference's emphasis on bonobos and the strong presence of bonobo researchers and conservationists. These people came direct from the field, and they had an urgent message that had not been articulated at previous conferences. This message was that the bonobo, in terms of the species' situation in the wild, is still relatively unknown and is in grave danger of going extinct in the near future. This message had been rarely heard at conferences where wild chimpanzees and gorillas were the paramount species of interest. Conference delegates agreed that a major strength of the conference was its focus on all ape species, great and small, and their conservation imperatives. The genuine hospitality of the Sarawak government and people formed the backdrop for the emerging concern for the survival of our ape relatives. Datuk Taib, the Chief Minister of Sarawak, and many of his cabinet hosted the evening reception that opened the conference, while the Minister of Tourism spoke at the plenary session that officially opened the conference's academic sessions. Equally important, those who braved the volatile situation in Southeast Asia were passionate about apes and their future, and their concern and commitment to apes were quite apparent. Another noticeable element of this conference was the diversity of delegates and the international flavor of all the proceedings. Scholars, conservationists, students, and officials traveled from at least 20 countries. Datuk Taib used the occasion of the conference to announce the establishment of a new reserve for orangutans (Ulu Sabayu) and, visibly moved by the presentation of the Orangutan Foundation International's Lorraine P. Jenkins Fellowship for Orangutan and Rainforest Research to three graduate students (including one from Sarawak), himself announced the creation of the Sarawak Orangutan Fellowship Awards. The presentation of the papers and formal and informal discussion culminated in the development of the Apes Declaration and a letter to the World Bank signed by numerous participants. In the spirit of the conference, the Chief Minister announced that an anti-bushmeat law would become effective immediately. This law allowed subsistence hunting of wild, unprotected species such as bearded pigs but totally banned the commercial trade, sale, and barter of such forest meat. Not surprisingly given that the conference was held in Southeast Asia, many of the papers were on the two Asian apes, the sole surviving great ape species in Asia, the orangutan, and the nine to eleven (depending on the taxonomy used) small ape species. There simply were too many papers at this conference for one volume. In preparing the book for publication, we decided to separate the papers into the African and Asian apes, as this resulted in two volumes of approximately equal length. The African volume includes several papers presented at the conference plus four from invited scholars. The chapters in Volume I reflect the strengths of the conference, including field research on bonobos, the great ape species arguably most threatened in the wild, the discussion of the ghastly bushmeat problem faced by African apes, and the diversity of fascinating studies, both in captive and wild situations, that reveal the high cognitive abilities of apes and the complexity of their behavior. One section of Volume I is devoted to the physiological bases for behavior and aging among great apes and further highlights ape and human similarities. Two chapters discuss models of hominid divergence from their ape cousins; both lead to fascinating, and perhaps controversial, conclusions. Finally, Peter Singer, the philosopher who gave us Animal Liberation, and Paolo Cavalieri, who forever changed the nature of the debate concerning animal rights, conclude Volume I with a summary of their arguments concerning the personhood of apes. Some hopeful conservation trends are noted by several authors in Volume I, including the establishment of new reserves, new field sites, and renewed governmental interest in conservation in African apes' range countries. In the face of increasing evidence of the behavioral, cognitive, and cultural complexities of these and other apes and the unresolved debates surrounding ape and human origins and evolution, strong philosophical, anthropological, and ecological arguments can and must be made for global efforts to conserve all apes. We intend for these two volumes to further such efforts. Birute M.F. Galdikas, Nancy Briggs, Lori K Sheeran, Gary L. Shapiro, and Jane Goodall WHERE TO ORDER Kluwer Academic Publishers Order Department P.O. Box 358, Accord Station Hingham, MA 02018-0358, USA Tel: (781) 871-6600 Fax: (781) 871-6528 E-mail: kluwer@wkap.com http://www.wkap.com Price: $75.00 ISBN: 0-306-46757-7 (hardbound)
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