Reprinted from the 1995 Proceedings of the Joint Conference
of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, the Wildlife
Disease Association, and the American Association of Wildlife
Veterinarians.
Macaques (genus Macaca), Asian primates in the family Cercopithecidae,
are divided into the following species groups: fascicularis,
including the crabeating (cynomolgus monkey), Japanese,
Taiwan, and Rhesus macaques; silenussylvanus, including
lion-tailed and Celebes macaques and the Barbary "ape"
sinica, including toque and bonnet macaques; and arctoides,
the stumptail macaque.5 Macaques are an interesting group
of primates that have traditionally been exhibited in zoo collections.
Of the 16 or so species currently listed, lion-tails are endangered,
Celebes are near endangered, and Barbary macaques are considered
vulnerable.
Even though some macaque species have qualified for successful
zoo exhibitry and conservation programs, they have an unenviable
trait of carrying an alpha herpesvirus, herpes B, which is infectious
for humans and potentially fatal. The virus, first recovered from
researcher Dr. B in 1933, has since been found to be enzootic
among laboratory and wild macaques.9 In the macaque, B virus
is mostly a latent disease (as much as Herpes simplex is
in humans) and only occasionally manifests as oral or genital
ulcers. It has been uncommonly transmitted to nonmacaque
primates4, 9 and has rarely caused fatal disease in the primary
macaque host itself. Although the epizootiology of B virus is
not fully established, studies in laboratory macaques have shown
that B virus is spread to postadolescent conspecifics mainly
by intimate exposure within colonies, and that the frequency of
virus shedding at any given time is very low -- often 2 to
3 percent even in colonies 100 percent seropositive for herpes
B.10, 11
The less than 40 human cases of herpes B infections reported in
humans since the index case in 1933 translates to fewer than 1.5
cases every other year, despite the many thousands of contacts
known to occur between macaques and their caretakers. This indicates
that transmission of herpes B from a macaque to a human is not
a casual event. The virus is very labile, and human infection
usually requires direct inoculation by a scratch or bite or exposure
of broken skin to secretions from a macaque shedding the virus.
Other factors such as degree of susceptibility or resistance of
the exposed individual may influence the infectivity of the virus
and the severity of infection.1
Notwithstanding the low hazard for infection, herpes B in humans
can be life threatening, and strict prophylactic procedures have
been developed to further reduce the risk to those handling macaques.
Laboratory methods for diagnosing herpes B by the latest immuno
and molecular techniques are available,6 and new guidelines for
the prevention and treatment of B virus infections in exposed
persons have recently been published.2
Results of some sporadic serosurveys of macaque species in several
zoos have shown that lion-tailed, Japanese, Tibetan, Celebes,
and Barbary macaques, and perhaps some other non-macaque species,
have tested seropositive for herpes B or Blike viruses7
(Gledhill, L. unpublished SSP report; Hilliard, J., personal
communication). It is likely that herpes B seropositivity of macaques
has been pervasive in zoo and wildlife parks; yet, human clinical
cases of infections with this virus have never been documented
in these settings.
The awareness of a disease potentially fatal to humans has created
concern and led some zoo managers to remove macaques from their
collections; others have strongly opposed these sentiments and
actions.3 The purpose of this presentation is to provide a balanced
medical overview of the herpes B question from a veterinary perspective
in order to ascertain the chances of zoo primate handlers actually
acquiring the disease. In addition to the clean record established
already for no human B virus at zoos, and from the vast amount
of preventative knowledge gained with laboratory macaques, the
possibilities of zoo workers contracting this disease in the future
seem to be even less likely.
Zoos should be able to continue to maintain macaques safely with
little stress to the keeper force if they adopt a plan that provides
preventative methods and education to zoo employees. This should
be carried out by a veterinary staff and medical consultants that
are knowledgeable about B virus.
With reference to special management practices, all macaques in
zoo collections should be considered potentially B virus carriers.
Although serologic testing should be an option, trying to sort
animals by casual screening of individuals is not an accurate
determination of B virus status, because seronegative animals
may still be carrying the virus latently and seroconvert at a
later time. Likewise, because of the nature of the herpesvirus,
seropositive animals may revert to a negative status, yet still
harbor the virus in a nonshedding state with the possibility
of exacerbation. Therefore, dividing groups of zoo macaques by
serologic status to the B virus is probably not a useful exercise
at this time.
Prophylactic medical procedures for human exposures should be
implemented, which include special firstaid practices to
eliminate any potential viral contamination of a wound, followed
by diagnostic procedures to document viral presence and treatment
strategies as outlined in the new guidelines.2 When these procedures
are followed, the hazard of human B virus in a zoo is probably
less than that of rabies in an enzootic area (like the raccoon
outbreak in northeastern U.S.), or even from a fatal injury by
a megavertebrate or large felid.
In addition to these preventative methods, the development of
specificpathogenfree (SPF) colonies of several laboratory
macaque species free from B virus has shown good results8, and
offers promise for eventually eliminating this virus in all captive
macaque groups. It is likely that these methods could be applied
particularly to the imperiled macaque species and should be perhaps
considered by SSP and TAG veterinarians advising these groups
as another option for resolving the B virus "dilemma."
LITERATURE CITED
1 Davenport, D.S., D.R. Johnson, G.P. Holmes, D.A. Jewett, S.C. Ross, and J. Hilliard. 1994. Diagnosis and management of human B virus (Herpes simiae) infections in Michigan. Clinical Infectious Diseases 19:33-41.
2 Holmes, G. P., L. E. Chapman, J. A. Steward, S. E. Straus, J.
K. Hillard, D. S. Davenport, and the B virus Working Group. 1995.
Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of virus infections
in exposed persons. Clinical Infectious Diseases 20:421-439.
3 Lindburg, D.G. 1993. Macaques may have a bleak future in North
American zoos. Zoo Biology 12:407-409.
4 Loomis, M. R, T. O'Neill, M. Bush, and R.J. Montali.
1981. Fatal herpesvirus infection in Patas monkeys and a black-and-white
Colobus monkey. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 179(11):1236-1239.
5 Nowak R. M. 1991. In: Nowak R.M. (ed.). Walker's Mammals
of the World, Fifth Edition. The John Hopkins University Press.
Baltimore & London, p. 469-476.
6 Seinicariello, F., R. Eberle, and J. Hilliard. 1993. Rapid detection of B virus (Herpes simiae) DNA by polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Infectious Diseases 168:747750.
7 Shima, A. L., D. L. Janssen, and M. R. Loomis. 1989. Management of herpes B virus seropositive macaques in a zoo collection. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Greensboro NC, p. 179180.
8 Ward, J. A. and J. K. Hilliard. B virusspecific pathogen-free (SPF) breeding colonies of macaques: Issues, surveillance, and result in 1992. Laboratory Animal Science 44(3):222228.
9 Weigler, B. J. 1992. Biology of B virus in macaques and human hosts: A review. Clinical Infectious Diseases 14:555567.
10 Weigler, B. J., D. W. Hird, J. K. Hilliard, N.W. Lerche, J. A. Roberts, and L. M. Scott, 1993. Epidemiology of cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (B virus) infection and shedding in a large breeding cohort of rhesus macaques. Journal of Infectious Diseases 167:257263.
11 Weir, E. C., P. N. Bhatt, R. O. Jacoby, J. K. Hilliard, and
S. Morgenstern. 1993. Infrequent shedding and transmission of
herpes virus simiae from seropositive macaques. Laboratory
Animal Science 43(6):541544.
The Indo-US Primate Project, under direction of Dr. S.M. Mohnot
of JNV University in Jodhpur, includes investigations into the
status, distribution, habitat evaluation, and biology of India's
richly diverse primate fauna. As a collaborator on this project,
I visited field sites within the Indira Ghandi Wildlife Sanctuary
last November at the behest of the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
The latter is co-sponsor of the Indo-US Project, along with the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
The Sanctuary measures 987 km2, and is located in the Nilgiri
Hills of southern India, about 65 km southwest of the city of
Coimbatore. It contains patches of both deciduous and evergreen
rain forest, and huge areas devoted to the production of tea,
coffee, and teak. Old World monkeys found within the sanctuary
include two langurs, Presbytis entellus and P. johnii,
and two macaques, Macaca silenus and M. radiata.
My focus was on M. silenus, since it is highly endangered
and because my institution, the Zoological Society of San Diego,
has funded a two-year study of the sexual behavior and reproduction
of this species.
Dr. Mewa Singh, primatologist in the Department of Psychology
at Mysore University, has been conducting surveys of the Sanctuary's
primates since 1994, for which he has long-term funding from the
Government of India. He is ably assisted by his wife, Dr. Mridula
Singh, a Mysore University colleague Dr. Lancy D'Souza,
and his field team of M. Ananda Kumar, H.N. Kumara, T.R. Shashidhar,
and Mohammed Salahuddin. A driver (Ravi) and field tracker (Chandaran)
are also employed by the project. All of the field observers are
in academic training in India.
To date, 27 different lion-tail groups within the Sanctuary have been identified (possibly 28 since, on the day of our arrival one of Dr. Singh's team returned to camp well after dark, having taken extra time to track what he believed to be a previously unknown group). Mr. Salahuddin is concerned primarily with the study of reproduction in four groups of lion-tails, including two in heavily disturbed habitat. Distribution patterns of the four species of Old World monkeys documented so far indicate that the bonnet macaques and common langurs primarily inhabit deciduous forests at lower altitudes, whereas the lion-tails and Nilgiri langurs are primarily confined to evergreen and shola forests at higher ranges. But, there are fascinating exceptions, including one area where all four species are found. Partial results from these studies will be presented by Dr. Singh at the American Society of Primatology meeting in San Diego this coming July.
-- Donald G. Lindburg, Center for Reproduction of Endangered
Species, Zoological Society of San Diego, P.O. Box 551, San Diego,
CA 92110
I think that one of the missing links as far as health issues
for lion-tailed macaques are concerned is the lack of a survey
of the wild populations and the incidence of exposure to diseases
in the wild. It would appear that the use of monkey houses in
captivity to display primates from around the world has been a
possible detriment to reintroduction of animals into the wild.
With the utilization of monkey houses, where animals are exposed
to pathogens of other species that are not native to their geographic
area of origin and to humans who have not been screened for diseases,
it is possible that pathogens that might be detrimental to the
wild population may have become established in the captive population.
It is relatively easy to test for specific diseases such as tuberculosis,
retroviruses, and herpes B, as well as Entamoeba histolytica
in the captive population. However, the significance of these
diseases relative to the wild population cannot be assessed until
the wild population has been surveyed. To survey the wild population,
we will need to obtain fecal and serum samples to run antibody
titers and look for pathogens in the fecals. After this basic
survey is completed, then we would know what pathogens are foreign
to the wild population and must be eliminated from animals to
be released, or we would know to pick individuals that have not
been exposed to these pathogens in captivity.
I believe that through the SSP programs, we have increased the possibility of spreading disease among our captive population by frequent interzoo exchanges, and therefore we should test both the receiving institutions' animals and the animal being shipped to the institution for pathogens or signs of disease.
An adequate testing policy in quarantine would be a 60day
stay where appetite and behavior is monitored closely. There
should be two TB tests done utilizing mammalian old tuberculin
in the eyelid at .l cc for our screening program. If there is
a suspicious or positive reaction, the animal should be worked
up with a battery of tests, which include chest xrays, followup
TB testing with PPD bovis and avian, the examination of sputum
samples for acidfast organisms, culture, and possible PCR
testing. A serum survey should be done for retroviruses, as well
as herpes B. A fecal sample should be cultured for the monitoring
of Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter,
as well as a parasite examination done with particular emphasis
on Entamoeba histolytica. A CBC or complete blood count
with differential should be done at least once in quarantine to
check the health of the animal.
This workup should be completed on all captive animals at least
once a year so that their status can be acknowledged before exposing
a new monkey into the troop. A vaccination program should be incorporated
that involves at least tetanus toxoid, and a killed rabies vaccine
where appropriate. Additional vaccines should be given when endemic
diseases pose a threat and a safe vaccine is available. One of
these vaccines that could possibly be used is a vaccine against
Streptococcal meningitis; however, there are a multitude
of serotypes that cause the problem and the vaccine must include
the serotype that is involved in an outbreak to be effective.
Exposure to any exotic monkey species should be avoided -- particularly
transferring these primates into the shared holding areas for
cleaning purposes.
Care staff looking after the liontailed macaques should
also go through a health screening process at least once a year
that includes TB testing, CBC, banking of serum, and fecal culture
and parasite checks to stop any possible exchange of zoonotic
disease. One of the issues that is very difficult to resolve
is the exclusion of animals that have been exposed to herpes B
in certain collections. Due to legal and moral issues, I am not
sure that a stand can be taken; however, the disease exists in
most Asian wild populations of macaques, and I feel it would be
detrimental to the genetic diversity to eliminate these animals
from captive collections. However, each institution should have
a program of education and protocols in line to handle possible
exposures. Cage design should keep in mind the elimination of
any possible public exposure and to increase the safety of keepers
having to work with the animals.
There are two areas of high mortality in the lion tailed
macaque populations. One is neonatal, although there does not
seem to be any one disease factor involved here. It is perhaps
more a maternal behavioral problem and should be addressed by
a behaviorist and possibly by looking at patterns of social groupings
and the reproductive background of the females being bred. The
other atrisk group of liontailed macaques is the three
to sixmonth age period, during which the maternal antibodies
are reducing due to the weaning process and the young animal's
immune system is probably not as strong as it would be at a later
time. There are not specific recommendations for this period
other than that it should be recognized as a problem time and
that management changes and disruption to the group should probably
be kept to a minimum while infants are in this age group.
Another issue is preparing for reintroduction. Again, animals
should be screened for the above listed diseases, but it is difficult
to make specific recommendations until the wild population is
screened and we know what exists in the wild and what we should
probably avoid introducing. I would suggest that the best animals
for reintroduction to India would be animals that have not been
kept with exotic primate species.
There has been much literature produced on the reproduction physiology
of preparing animals for artificial reproductive techniques. These
include basic serum levels of estrogen and progesterone for the
lion tailed macaque female's normal cycle and how
to analyze the primates for perimenopausal and menopausal phases
of their reproductive life. Normal values for testosterone, LH,
and FSH in the males have been measured, as well as a range of
parameters for ejaculates done by electroejaculation, both manual
and computerized normal values. It is also known that when rectal
probe electroejaculation is utilized that much of the sperm is
retroejaculated back into the bladder, and techniques have been
devised to recover this semen for artificial reproductive techniques.
Accomplishments that have occurred with artificial reproductive
techniques to date are successful semen collection with freezing,
thawing, and subsequent fertilization utilizing intercytoplasmic
sperm injection. We know that the female liontailed macaque
builds antibodies to the human, horse, and pig stimulating drugs
and can only be stimulated once utilizing these commercially available
drugs. However, the synthetic recombinant drugs that are now coming
on the market are able to stimulate the liontails at least
twice and possibly three times. We have concentrated on products
that reduce adhesions postsurgically on these monkeys and
have been quite successful with that. We have been able to collect
numerous highquality eggs after stimulation, mature them
in vitro, and have 5070 percent fertilization using the
new technique of intercytoplasmic sperm injections. We have several
liontailed macaque embryos frozen in our liquid nitrogen
cooler. At the moment, we have successfully shut down overrepresented
liontailed macaques using reversible GnRH agonists to make
them suitable recipients for fresh embryos and recently transferred
four fresh embryos of an underrepresented pair of lion tails
to an overrepresented recipient. To date, it is too early to tell
whether the animal is pregnant.
We have future interests in looking at freezing ovaries from animals
that die and total in vitro maturation from their primordial state
to fertilization. This project will be occurring over the next
year and a half and opens up a great number of new possibilities.
There are possibilities for importing wild genes into the captive
population through successful usage of frozen/thawed liontailed
macaque sperm. This would allow us to electroejaculate wild males
and import their frozen sperm to incorporate in the captive population.
If the future project of total in vitro maturation of immature
eggs is successful, we would then be able to, with a simple laparoscopic
procedure, take an ovarian biopsy of an unstimulated female that
had been darted in the wild and immediately transport these biopsies
in transport medium back to an appropriate lab to mature. Embryos
produced would then return female genetic material into the captive
population.
-- Michael R. Cranfield, D.V.M., Lion-tailed Macaque
Veterinary Advisor, The Baltimore Zoo, Druid Hill Park, Baltimore,
MD 21217
A workshop co-sponsored by Zoo Outreach Organization, Central
Zoo Authority of India, and the Forest Department of Tamil Nadu
was recently held in Coimbatore, Southwest India, to develop Master
Plans for both in-situ and ex-situ populations of lion-tailed
macaques. A report on the Master Plan for the captive population
is in this issue. The in-situ plan will be reported in the next
issue of the newsletter. It was my pleasure to participate in
this workshop and, while there, to visit two lion-tailed macaque
habitats, and I would like to share my observations and experiences.
The highlight of the field trips was a visitation to Silent Valley
National Park. Silent Valley, a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve, encompasses 89.5 sq. km. and has one of the highest
levels of tropical rainforest diversity to be found anywhere.
This plateau represents a well-preserved example of undulating,
high rainfall (~4400 mm) terrain at mid-elevation, 685 m to 1500
m, under two zones -- one along the water course and the other
away from the water course. Nowhere within Southwest Asia will
you find an area that compares in terms of riparian and non-riparian
ecosystems in a mid-elevation, high rainfall zone. This is a completely
protected park with only government vehicles allowed within the
boundaries. Visitation to the park is prohibited, except by limited
permit, and the only residents are tribals who have historically
existed in the park. In a bio-geographical sense, Silent Valley
and the adjacent forests of the Western Ghats represent ecological
islands, where the conditions that prevailed before habitat degradations
occurred can still be observed.
To conservationists and primatologists, Silent Valley is famous
as the battleground where Indian forces of conservation confronted
advocates of development and industrial expansion, and won. (
See accompanying Profile of Silent Valley for details p.13). While
218 lion-tailed macaques make their home within the park, not
one individual was found, despite trekking 10-15 km. Nonetheless,
the experience of sitting at a Forest Service hilltop campsite
and being able to survey acres of undisturbed rainforest was awe-inspiring.
For more than 20 years, I have discussed lion-tailed macaques
with various groups and have always mentioned the story of the
fight to conserve Silent Valley. Now, I was standing in the midst
of this hallowed land.
Much of the credit for the maintenance of Silent Valley must go
to the dedicated Forest Service officers, especially Dr. Amit
Mallick, IFS, the District Wildlife Warden. Dr. Mallick and his
officers are extremely dedicated to their profession while working
under less than optimum conditions. While there is tremendous
support for conservation of India's wildlife and its habitat,
unfortunately, the funding is lacking. India is facing many challenges,
and funding for the Forest and Wildlife Services is a low priority.
The entire Forest Service detachment at Silent Valley has only
one pair of very old binoculars, no recording equipment, no computers,
no portable two-way radios, etc. They have in their possession
an old manual typewriter for use in correspondence and report
writing. On-site access to scientific books and literature regarding
the animals under their care is practically non-existent. In spite
of these constraints, they are doing an exceptional job managing
this jewel of a park.
On the second day, we visited several sites adjacent to the mountain
town of Valparai in the Anaimalai Hills. This is an area of isolated
rainforest segments interspersed within an extensive number of
tea and coffee plantations. Within this area two troops were observed.
The smaller of the two contained about 10 individuals, while the
larger contained 23 individuals. Both groups had multiple adult
males, but infants were not seen in either group. Also seen within
the area were Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata), Nilgiri
langurs (Presbytis johni), Malabar giant squirrels (Ratufa
indica) and a small squirrel, probably the flying squirrel
(Petaurista petaurista).
In contrast to the previous day's pristine forest setting, this
area was "underplanted," which is the practice of
clear cutting while leaving occasional mature trees to provide
the shade and humidity necessary for growing cardamon and coffee.
The previous day, it was possible to stand on a hilltop and experience
nothing but undisturbed rainforest as far as a person could see.
At this location, all one could see were cardamom and coffee plantations.
The troop of 23 individuals resided in the Puthuthotam Cardamom
Forest and is the same group that Shaily Menon studied in 1989-91,
which had 43 individuals at that time. We spent about only two
hours in the area, so it is likely that there were additional
individuals, but it was evident that the troop had not increased
and had probably decreased in numbers.
The Puthuthotam Cardamom Forest is a 65 ha disturbed forest patch
surrounded on three sides by tea and coffee plantations and on
the other side by a heavily used road. It is a privately leased
forest that has an ongoing history of selective logging. While
traveling to and from the site, we passed several trucks loaded
with logs or forest products (.ie. firewood). Prior to Shaily's
study in 1989, approximately 800 trees were cut, and after receiving
permission, another 300 were selective cut. Since returning, I
have received information that the owners have given an order
to cut 25 trees a day in this same forest. The matter has been
referred to the Chief Conservator of Forest (CCF), who is investigating
the situation. The Zoo Outreach Organization will be initiating
a meeting in Valperai with foresters, researchers, environmental
NGOs, and the estate owners to inform them about the plight of
the lion-tailed macaques and discuss measures that could be taken
to preserve the animals and also allow the use of their property.
Throughout the entire time spent in India, I was very impressed
with the friendliness and enthusiasm of the participants, from
both the field and zoo. The zoo participants exhibited an obsession
in obtaining information concerning any and all areas of management
techniques. In addition to their interest in everyday management
topics, there was universal interest in "high tech"
subjects such as AI and embryo transfer. This same desire was
also evident within the in-situ sector. It was obvious that we
must do a better job n sharing information between the various
communities working with lion-tailed macaques.
Especially disconcerting was the dissemination of erroneous information.
When I informed the participants that we routinely tranquilized
our primates for annual exams, they were astonished. They had
been led to believe that tranquilization was an extreme risk that
had resulted in many deaths. Therefore, they were very reluctant
to schedule regular health and reproductive exams or procedures
that required tranquilization. They were also amazed when I stated
the majority of the collection at Woodland Park Zoo had transponders
implanted for identification. They were of the opinion that the
transponders were a source of many infections. There was also
very little knowledge of the St. Catherine's project, and
what little they had was erroneous. It was their understanding
that, for the most part, it was a failure; several animals had
failed to adapt and there had been several deaths from strangulation
by animals getting their radio collars caught. There has also
been a communication problem relaying information from India to
us. It has been my understanding that there was little or no
interest at all in reintroduction or translocations. To my surprise,
I encountered a great deal of discussion regarding the possibility
of both translocations and reintroduction from Forest officers,
researchers, and zoo officials. The Forest officers were extremely
interested in the St. Catherine's Project, especially the
release techniques, re-capturing procedure, radio collaring, tracking,
and adaptation to naturally occurring food plants. The biggest
surprise was that some preliminary discussion had been held regarding
a release, including the selection of a possible release site.
It is obvious that a better system of communications must be established.
This was a topic of discussion at the workshop, and in collaboration
with our Indian colleagues, I am in the process of devising an
approach to improve information transfer.
I would like to end this report in expressing my gratitude to
my institution, Woodland Park Zoo, for allowing me to participate
in this workshop and to the U.S. Fish & Wildlife division
of the U.S. Department of the Interior, who provided the funding
for my participation. This was my second such trip, and I returned
tired but re-enthused with the knowledge that our efforts are
contributing to the preservation of one of nature's treasures.
If the opportunity should exist for any of you to visit India,
and especially lion-tailed macaque areas, go for it. It will be
an experience you will never forget.
-- Laurence Gledhill, AZA SSP Coordinator,
Lion-tailed macaques, Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, 5500 Phinney
Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98103
The Central Zoo Authority, in collaboration with the Forest Department
of Tamil Nadu and Zoo Outreach Organization/CBSG, India, conducted
a two-part workshop in Coimbatore, India, October 14-18, 1996,
for the conservation of the lion-tailed macaque. Attending this
workshop were Forest Officers and researchers from lion-tailed
macaque bearing divisions in the southern Indian states and curators
and biologists of zoos that are members of the Indian Endangered
Species Breeding Programme for Lion-tailed macaques.
Local resource persons were:
L.N. Acharjyo (ret. vet. Nandankanan Zoo)
J.H. Desai, (Consultant Central Zoo Authority)
Ajith Kumar (Chief Scientist, SACON)
Iqbal Malik (Member, Central Zoo Authority)
Sanjay Molur (Zoo/CBSG India)
K.K. Ramachandran (Kerala Forest Research Inst.)
S.C. Sharma (Secretary, Central Zoo Authority)
R. Sukumar (Centre for Ecological Sciences)
Sally Walker (Zoo Outreach Org./CBSG, India).
Foreign resource persons assisting were:
Jon Ballou (National Zoo, Washington D.C., USA),
Laurence Gledhill (Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle WA, USA)
Robert Lacy (Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, IL, USA).
The first section of the workshop was for the Forest Officers
and researchers and focused upon the dynamics and management of
lion-tailed macaques in the wild. This section produced a report
to be used as a baseline document for an In-situ Management Plan.
A detailed report will appear in the next newsletter.
The second section for zoo curators and biologists focused upon
husbandry, health, and the management and population dynamics
of lion-tailed macaques in captivity. A Master Plan was generated
to provide coordination of the management of the captive population
with the recovery and conservation of the wild population. A synopsis
of the Captive Master Plan follows.
Current Captive Population
The Indian captive population has 14 ancestors of unknown parentage.
It is unlikely that these animals had any living relatives in
the population other than their directly known descents, but due
to the percentage (27%) of the total population and the presence
of an additional 9 unrepresented animals of unknown parentage,
it was necessary to make several population assumptions. All assumptions
were made on a "worst-case" basis so that any decisions
made using them would have a minimum deleterious effect upon the
population.
The Indian population of contains 25.21.1 individuals in 12 institutions,
with an age structure indicative of a very unstable population
that could easily become extinct. Due to insufficient life history
details, a demographic analysis of the captive population was
not performed, as it would not provide relevant information.
Genetic analysis indicated that there are 15 founders currently
represented in the population with a potential to increase this
representation to 29 founders. The range of founder representation
is from 1.2% to a high of 14.76%.
Computer gene drop simulation indicated that there is only 4.30
founder genome equivalents (FGE) in the current population. By
controlling future reproduction, there is a potential to increase
this representation to 20.45 FGEs. The disparity between potential
and current FGEs demonstrates that extensive genetic control must
be employed to increase this representation. The mean inbreeding
coefficient of the population is 0.116, which also indicates the
need for genetic control.
Master Plan Objectives
It was decided that the primary objective of the Master Plan was to establish a secure and genetically diverse population capable of supporting a future re-introduction program if one should be deemed advisable. The generally established recommendation of maintaining 90% of the current population heterozy
gosity for a 100-year span was used in the Master Plan. The immediate
goal of the program is to expand the captive population as rapidly
as possible while correcting the genetic and demographic unbalance.
These considerations were the basis for all the recommendations.
General Recommendations
In addition to analyzing the genetics and demographics of the
population and making breeding recommendations, the workshop participants
made the following general recommendations to apply to all Indian
lion-tailed macaque bearing institutions:
(1) To enable intelligent management decisions, records of the
parentage, birth, death, and transfer dates must be kept of all
lion-tailed macaques in all Indian zoos.
(2) All animals must be identified in a permanent manner with
a tattoo or by implanting a transponder. If funding can be obtained,
transponders are the preferred manner of identification.
(3) Diets currently in use should be analyzed for content and
nutrition. Recommendations should made for a standardized diet
to be fed to all Indian zoo lion-tailed macaques.
(4) To determine the female's receptivity to a male and
the success of reproductive encounters, behavioral and reproductive
observations must be made and recorded.
(5) All lion-tailed macaques must be maintained in enclosures
that provide adequate shelter from the elements, including protection
from both sun and rain. Provisions must be made for the animals
to express their natural behavior by providing extensive climbing
structures (living or dead trees, and/or artificial climbers)
within the exhibit.
(6) As a result of the realignment of the collections, several
males will be removed from the groups. As it is highly probable
that some (possibly all) of these animals will be needed for
future reproduction efforts, it is important that they be maintained
in a social situation.
In addition to the general recommendations, 16 individual animal
movements involving 10 institutions were recommended. The Master
Plan was submitted to the Indian Zoo Directors Association on
November 15, 1996, and if accepted, implementation of the moves
should commence within a few months. It is hoped that implementation
of a coordinated management plan will result in a viable captive
population within the country that the lion-tailed macaque calls
home.
-- Laurence Gledhill, AZA SSP Coordinator, Lion-tailed
macaques, Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, 5500 Phinney Ave.
N., Seattle, WA 98103
The Puget Sound Chapter of the American Association of Zookeepers is currently offering lion-tailed macaque label pins as a project to raise funds to support lion-tailed macaque activities within India. They obtained them with a conservation support grant from the Woodland Park Zoological Society, which allows all income to be used for lion-tailed macaque activities within India.
Besides the Puget Sound Chapter of AAZK, the pins are available
at the Baltimore Zoo, San Diego Zoo, Baton Rouge Zoo, Assiniboine
Park Zoo (Winnipeg), Detroit Zoo, and the Lake Superior Zoo (Duluth).
If anyone would like to support this project, they can obtain
pins from representatives at these zoos or from me at Woodland
Park Zoo for a donation of $5.00. Additionally, if anyone would
like to obtain a quantity of pins to sell, they are available
from the chapter at Woodland Park Zoo.
The Colobus SSP held its first Master Planning session in June
1996 at the Metro Washington Park Zoo in Portland, Oregon. In
attendance were Management Group members of the Colobus SSP and
also members of the Old World Monkey Advisory Group. The SSP population
for Colobus guereza consists of 256 (101.142.12) animals
at 50 AZA institutions, and the SSP population for C. angolensis
consists of 42 (17.20.5) animals at 6 institutions. The TAG allotted
300 spaces and 100 spaces, respectively, for these species.
The first order of business for the Management Group was to decide
how best to manage the subspecies of C. guereza. When making
this decision, two important factors were taken into consideration.
First, the Old World Monkey Advisory Group had determined in the
Regional Collection Plan (1994) that this species was to be maintained
in captivity for educational and exhibit purposes. In addition,
the Group wished to keep surplus animals at a minimum and wished
to take no additional animals from the wild.
The Management Group decided that AZA SSP population animals will
be bred without consideration of their subspecific identity. However,
it was recognized that breeding programs in other regions may
decide to maintain pure subspecific populations of C. guereza.
Therefore, for the next 12-month period, animals of known subspecific
identity will be made available for export to other regions for
use in developing pure subspecific regional populations, regardless
of the animal's mean kinship value relative to the SSP
population. If there is no interest from other regions for importing
these animals, they will be incorporated into the SSP population
and bred based on their mean kinship values, regardless of their
subspecific identity.
Breeding recommendations for the Master Plan were made based on
mean kinship of the animals in the North American population.
Management of social groupings was of primary concern in making
recommendations for the movement of animals. Although 300 spaces
have been allotted to C. guereza by the TAG, SSP recommendations
were made to maintain a stable population of 250 animals. There
will need to be approximately 35 to 40 births per year to maintain
the population at this number.
The primary goal of the captive population of C. angolensis
is longterm retention of genetic diversity. The SSP recommendations
were to expand this population as rapidly as possible. Accordingly,
recruitment of new institutions and additional spaces for this
species is an SSP priority.
The goals for the upcoming year are to: 1) work on developing
the husbandry manual; 2) identify advisors for the SSP, and; 3)
recruit new spaces for C. angolensis.
In preparation for the Master Planning session, the second edition
of the colobus studbook was produced and distributed with the
Master Plan to institutions holding colobus. The studbook historically
contains data for a total of 1,300 Colobus guereza individuals,
including 284 living animals in 56 institutions. Historic records
for C. angolensis list 105 animals and records for living
animals show 40 animals at 7 institutions. Animals that were transferred
to institutions without subsequent verification have been listed
as "Lost to Follow Up." These animals may be brought
back into the population at a later date if information does become
available. Anyone with information on these animals is asked to
please contact the studbook keeper so that we may have a more
accurate record of the number of animals living in North America.
Included in the second edition are four feature articles. The
first article is written by Carolyn Bocian, a Ph.D. student working
under the advisement of Dr. John Oates. Carolyn has summarized
results from her research in Zaire on a sympatric group of C.
guereza and C. angolensis. Her article is entitled
"Niche Separation in Sympatric BlackandWhite
Colobus." Amy McGuire's article "Colobus Training
Strategy at the North Carolina Zoological Park" outlines
the staff's experiences in training their colobus. Amy
explains how the training has enhanced their management of the
group. "Hand Rearing a Colobus Monkey" was submitted
by Carolyn Munn from the Audubon Zoo in New Orleans. In this article,
Carolyn summarized her and her staff's experience in successfully
handraising an infant colobus. In addition, of interest
to many colobus managers, Ingrid Porton of the AZA's Contraceptive
Task Force reviews contraception in colobus. Also included in
the studbook is an updated bibliography.
-- Cathi Lehn, Animal Genetics, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX 77843-2471; North American Regional Colobus
Studbook
For more information please contact: Cathi
Lehn, or Mike Tucker, Animal Genetics, Colobus SSP Coordinator,
Texas A&M University, Caidwell Zoo College Station, P.O. Box
4280, Tyler, TX 778432471 Email: cal2590@zeus.tamu.edu
Macaca f. fuscata, Japanese Macaque
RCP Category = PMP; M/L Status = Safe; Cities II
NA (Studbook) population size = 97.165 (24)
AZA population size = 59.125 (15)
Studbook keeper: Michelle Selden-Koch, Detroit Zoological Institute
Population manager: Scott Carter, Detroit Zoological Institute
Macaca nigra, Sulawesi Crested (Black) Macaque
RCP Category = SSP; M/L Status = Endangered;
Cities II
NA population size = 172.151.7 (37)
AZA population: 52.69.1 (19)
Studbook keeper: Lorraine Meller, North CarolinaZoo
Macaca silenus, Lion-tailed Macaque
RCP Category = SSP; M/L Status = Endangered;
Cities I
NA population size = 126.129.11 (36)
AZA population size = 113.104.11 (26)
Inter. studbook keeper: Laurence Gledhill,
Woodland Park Zoo
SSP Coordinator: Laurence Gledhill
Recommendations and goals:
1. Reduce AZA population using regained speces for recommended macaque species. Priority use of space to be alloted to Sulawesi black macaques. (S. Carter)
2. Recruit additional known founders from research community. (S. Carter)
3. Coordinate management of population by implementing a Population Management Plan (PMP) with Scott Carter as population manager. (S. Carter)
4. Maintain and update Regional Studbook. (M. Selden-Koch)
Recommendations and goals:
1. Establish SSP for species. (L. Meller)
2. Publish and distribute studbook by Sept. 1996. (L. Meller)
3. Monitor in-situ conservation status. (L. Meller)
4. Recruit additional institutions into SSP participation. (L. Meller)
5. Phase out non-recommended Sulawesi macaque species in NA collections.
(L. Meller)
Recommendations and goals:
1. Implement Master Plan. (L. Gledhill)
2. Work toward establishment of a global Master Plan for this species. (L. Gledhill)
3. Continue to monitor in-situ status. (L. Gledhill)
4. Investigate and develop technology for possible future reintroduction.
(L. Gledhill)
(As adopted at 1996 midyear meeting, Portland,
OR)
Global Macaque Projects:
1. Conduct a workshop to establish a generic Macaque Husbandry
Manual, including all three managed species. ($10,000)
2. Conduct an internal educational program among AZA institutions, emphasizing the potential (or lack of) for zoonotic disease transmission and preventive methods. ($10,000)
Global Macaque Projects:
1. Conduct a workshop to establish a generic Macaque Husbandry
Manual, including all three managed species. ($10,000)
2. Conduct an internal educational program among AZA institutions,
emphasizing the potential (or lack of) for zoonotic disease transmission
and preventive methods. ($10,000)
1. The water sheds of the Silent Valley area were first explored
and investigated as early as 1847.
2. The forest of the Silent Valley area was declared as a Reserve
Forest in 1914.
3. Certain portions of the Silent Valley forest area were subjected
to forestery operations during the years between 1927 and 1976.
4. In 1928-29, the location at Sairnadhri on the Kunthipuzha was
identified as an ideal site for power generation.
5. A study and survey of the area was conducted in 1958, and a
hydroelectic project of 120 MV costing 17 Crore Rs. was proposed
by the Kerala State Electricity Board.
6. The National Committee on Enviromental Planning and Co-ordination
(NCEPC) studied the proposal for the hydro project and suggested
17 safeguards to be implemented in case the project cannot be
abandoned.
7. In 1977, the Kerala Forest Research Institute carried out an
Ecological Impact study of the Silent Valley area and proposed
that the area be declared as a Biosphere Reserve.
8. In 1978, the Honorable Prime Minister of India approved the
project, with the condition that the State Government enact Legislation
ensuring the necessry safeguards.
9. IUCN (Ashkhabad, USSR, 1978) passed a Resolution recommending
protection oflion-tailed macaques in Silent Valley and Kalakkad.
10. In 1979, the Government of Kerala passed an Enactment viz
Silent Valley Protection Area (Protection of Ecological balance)
Act of 1979.
11. The government of Kerala issued a notification declaring the
exclusion of the Hydroelectric Project Area from the proposed
National Park.
12. Dr. Salim Ali, eminent ornithologist, visited the Valley and
appealed for the abandoning of the Hydroelectric Project.
13. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishath published a Techno-economic
and Socio-Political assessment report on the silent Valley Hydroelectric
project.
14. A petition of writ was filed against the clear cutting of
forests in the Hydroelectric Project area before the High Court
of Kerala, and the court ordered a stop to the clear cutting.
15. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the renowned Agricultural Scientist,
visited the Silent Valley area and suggested the development of
the Silent Valley and the adjoining forests as a National Rain
Forest Bio-sphere Reserve.
16. In January 1980, the Hon. High Court of Kerala lifted the
stay order on clear cutting.
17. In 1980, Smt. Indira Gandhi, the Hon. Prime Minister of India,
requested the Government of Kerala to stop further works in the
project area until all aspects were fully discussed.
18. In December 1980, the Government of Kelala declared the Silent
Valley area, excluding the Hydroelectric Project area, as a National
Park.
19. A multi-disciplinary committee with Prof. M.G.K. Menon as
chairman, was created to decide if the Hydroelectric Project was
feasible without any significant ecological damage.
20. In early 1983, Prof. Menon's Committee submitted its
report.
21. After a careful study of the Menon report, the Hon. Prime
Minister of India decided to abandon the Hydroelectric Project.
22. On November 15 ,1984, the Silent Valley forests were declared
as a National Park.
23. On September 7, 1985, the Silent Valley National Park was
formally inaugurated by Shri. Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of
India.
24. On September 1, 1986, the Silent Valley National Park was
included in the core area of the Nilgiri Bio-sphere Reserve.
Old World Monkey Taxon Advisory Group Co-chairs
Fred Koontz, Director of Research
NYZS/The Wildlife Conservation Society
185th Street & Southern Blvd.
Bronx, NY 10460-1099
David Ruhter, Director of Wildlife
Silver Springs Nature Park
5656 East Silver Springs Blvd.
Silver Springs, FL 34488
Eve Watts, Asst. Curator of Primates and Carnivores
San Francisco Zoological Society
1 Zoo Road
San Francisco, CA 94132-1098
OWM TAG Newsletter
Helena Fitch-Snyder: Editor
Zoological Society of San Diego
P.O. Box 551
San Diego, CA 92112-0551
USA
URL: http://www.primate.wisc.edu/pin/news/owmtag.3.2.html
Page last modified:
February 19, 2002
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